From
the 7th to the 10th century, Arab and Persian trading posts
were established along the coast of present-day Somalia. Nomadic
tribes occupied the interior, occasionally pushing into Ethiopian
territory. In the 16th century, Turkish rule extended to the
northern coast and the Sultans of Zanzibar gained control in
the south.
After
British occupation of Aden in 1839, the Somali coast became
its source of food. The French established a coal mining station
in 1862 at the site of Djibouti and the Italians planted a
settlement in Eritrea. Egypt, which for a time claimed Turkish
rights in the area, was succeeded by Britain. By 1920, a British
protectorate and an Italian protectorate occupied what is now
Somalia. The British ruled the entire area after 1941, with
Italy returning in 1950 to serve as United Nations trustee
for its former territory. By 1960, Britain and Italy granted
independence to their respective sectors, enabling the two
to join as the Republic of Somalia on July 1, 1960. Somalia
broke diplomatic relations with Britain in 1963 when the British granted
the Somali-populated Northern Frontier District of Kenya to the Republic
of Kenya.
On
Oct. 15, 1969, President Abdi Rashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated
and the army seized power, dissolving the legislature and arresting
all government leaders. Maj. Gen. Mohamed Siad Barre, as president
of a renamed Somali Democratic Republic, leaned heavily toward
the U.S.S.R. In 1977, Somalia openly backed rebels in the easternmost
area of Ethiopia, the Ogaden Desert, which had been seized
by Ethiopia at the turn of the century. Somalia acknowledged
defeat in an eight-month war against the Ethiopians that year,
having lost much of its 32,000-man army and most of its tanks
and planes. President Siad Barre fled the country in late Jan.
1991. His departure left Somalia in the hands of a number of
clan-based guerrilla groups, none of which trusted each other.
Africa's
worst drought occurred in 1992, and coupled with the devastation
of civil war, Somalia was plunged into a severe famine-an estimated
one-third of the population was in danger of dying from starvation.
U.S. troops were sent in to protect the delivery of food in
Dec. 1992. In May the U.N. took control of the relief efforts
from the U.S. The warlord Mohamed Farah Aidid ambushed U.N.
troops and dragged American bodies through the streets, causing
an about-face in America's willingness to involve itself in
the fate of this anarchic country. Peace talks in Kenya appeared
to be moving slowly but steadily toward an agreement on an
interim government, at least in principle,
when on March 23, 1994, they collapsed. The last of the
U.S. troops left in late March, leaving 19,000 U.N. troops
behind.
Since
1991 Somalia has been engulfed in anarchy. Over the past seven
years peace negotiations between the various factions have
been fruitless, and no attempt has been made to rebuild the
government. In 1991, a breakaway nation, the Somaliland Republic,
proclaimed its independence. Since then several warlords have
begun to set up their own ministates-Colonel Abdullahi Yussuf
Ahmed is president of breakaway Puntland and Mohamed "General
Morgan" Said Hersi began setting up Jubaland in the fall of 1998.
In
Aug. 2000, a parliament convened in nearby Djibouti and
elected a new president, Abdulkassim Salat Hassana. While
neighboring countries were quick to recognize the new government,
some Somali warlords operating out of Mogadishu, as well
as the leaders of the breakaway regions of Somaliland and
Puntland, oppose the parliament, and it was uncertain whether
the new government-Somalia's first in nearly a decade-would
actually be permitted to govern.
Climate
The
climate of Somalia ranges from tropical to subtropical and
from arid to semiarid. Temperatures usually average 82° F,
but may be as low as 32° F in the mountain areas and as
high as 116° F along the coast. The monsoon winds bring
a dry season from September to December and a rainy season
from March to May. The average annual rainfall is only about
11 in.
Education
Education
up to the civil war of 1990 was free and compulsory.
A comprehensive government program was able to raise
the literacy rate from about 5% in 1970 to 60% in
the mid-1980s. At this time, elementary schools numbered
nearly 300,000 pupils and there were good secondary
schools and vocational institutions. Unfortunately,
because of years of civil war, the educational system
has virtually collapsed and most schools have been
closed. Even the Somali
National University, which was founded as early as 1954
in Mogadishu, had to close its doors to some 5,000 students.
Religion
The
Somali-related peoples accepted Islam in the 1400's. (Some
historians say it may have been as early as the 1200's.) Sufi
mystical orders and practices are prominent in the Islam of
Somalia. Their commitment to Islam has led to the development
of legendary claims of lineage in the Arabian Peninsula, but
these claims are not supported by linguistic evidence and other
oral traditions. These people are thoroughly Sunni Muslim in
profession, but paradoxically their family and clan identities
take precedence over the claims and values of the Muslim faith.
It is common for Somalis to refer themselves as Arabs. In the
1990s Islamic fundamentalism has been gaining ground over the
traditional Sufi mystical orders.
Traditions
The
Digil and Rahawiin clans retain much of the historic nomadic,
pastoral culture primarily centered around camels with
a few cattle and goats in the more productive areas. The
culture has been modified by the agricultural setting of
the Lower Jubba. Most of the agriculture is conducted by
the Gosha or Oromo people, but it has affected the Somali
culture. Many are involved in trade with Swahili or Arab
communities on the Indian Ocean coast. Many Maay speakers
live in cities and towns. In general, men herd and protect
the camels and cattle (cattle mainly in area south of Garissa
and camels mainly to the north), women take the responsibility
of milking the animals, food preparation and family nurture.
A common pastime is the use of qaad (khat) or miraa, a
stimulant leaf. This miraa is also a social pastime. The
Digil-Rahawiin share the Somali love of poetry. A man is
allowed four wives under Islamic law and polygamy is widely
practiced. Divorce is easy and common, but is an option
for the man only. In case of divorce the children are divided
by gender, boys to the father and girls to the mother.
Somalia's
traditional dance
People
and Language
A
typical Somalia
The
Somalis, a Cushitic people, share the same language,
religion and culture but are divided into groups
by a deeply ingrained clan structure, such as the
Dir, Iqsaq and Digil.
There is a small minority of Bantu-speaking people in the south.
Other minority groups include Arabs, Indians, Italians and some Pakistanis.
However, the indigenous population is nomadic or traditional pastoralists.
The rest are either crop farmers, fishermen, or urban dwellers.
With a population of nearly 9 million, Somalia has an average population
density of 10 people per sq km. The population of the capital, Mogadishu,
is estimated at around 0.75 million.
Holidays
The
most important festivals of the year are religious. Two of
the most important are Id al Fitr and Id al Adha. Id al Fitr
is the festival, which marks the end of the fasting month of
Ramadan. After getting up late (about 8:00 a.m.), families
get dressed up for a round of visits and the children, in new
clothes, receive gifts or money at each house. Everybody who
can possibly afford it donates money to the poor and at midday
there is a special feast. Id al Adha commemorates a sacrifice
of Abraham. As with Id al Fitr, children particularly enjoy
the day. Amusement parks are set up and shops have special
displays of clothes, toys and sweets. Those who can afford
it sacrifice an animal and give it to the poor. Other national
holidays include June 26, which celebrates the north's independence,
and July 1, the anniversary of the day the south gained independence
and the
two former colonies united.
Economy
Somalia
is one of the world's poorest and least developed countries.
In 1990, before the civil war, cattle raising accounted
for about 40 percent of GDP and generated close to 65 percent
of export earnings. Ten years later, with half of the economy
lost to the armed conflict, Somalia's dependency on livestock
and subsistence agriculture is certainly greater. Famine
is a constant threat to the population; as of September
2000, some 300,000 people faced severe food shortages in
Somalia's southern regions following a poor rainy season
in east Africa. The UN has appealed to donor countries
for aid to Somali farmers, but insecurity continues to
hamper the aid effort. With the exception of the northern
region of Somaliland, civil unrest remains as the main
obstacle to economic development across the country. Amid
the chaos, the economic revival of Somalia may have already
started in
the Puntland and Somaliland regions. Wealthy overseas investors,
including many Somali expatriates, have taken
A
Somalia Community
advantage
of the unregulated business environment to establish a wide
range of small and medium sized enterprises. In an attempt
to bring stability to all the country, representatives from
each clan meet in Djibouti, in July 2000, to create an interim
government. President Hassan, who was elected for a three-year
term, has assured on multiple occasions that the government
supports the development of market-oriented economy.
Bibliography
"Somalia," Microsoft
Encarta Encyclopedia 2000. 1993-1999, Microsoft Corporation
"Somalia," http://www.emulateme.com/.
1997-2001, Emulate Me
Desert
Flower is the compelling autobiography of supermodel
Waris Dirie, born into a traditional Somali family
of nomads who believed in such archaic customs as
female genital mutilation and arranged marriages
between prepubescent girls and elderly men, for a
dowry of a few goats and camels. The young Waris
survived exploitation, attempted rape, and casual
violence as she tenaciously fought her way as far
as London, where she took a job as a maid for a distant
uncle. There, as she struggled to learn to read and
write, her striking beauty caught the eye of a photographer,
and soon she had launched a modeling career that
would take her all the way to New York City and international
celebrity. Today, as a special ambassador appointed
by the United Nations, she travels the world speaking
out against female genital mutilation, promoting
the cause of women's rights, and educating people
about the war-torn, drought-parched region of Africa
she fled - but still loves deeply.
Gives a
powerful inside view into the hardships of the nomadic
Somali culture, where life is centered around the
daily search for food and water, and young girls
undergo genital cutting for arranged marriages. --
The New York Times Book Reviews Waris's story is
one of remarkable courage. From the deserts of Somalia
to the world of high fashion, she battles against
oppression and emerges a real champion. She is the
most beautiful inspiration to anyone."
"Waris Dirie is a remarkable and courageous person. Her story is an inspiration.
Not only did Waris overcome obstacles that would defeat most people, but as UNFPA
Special Ambassador for the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation, she will
serve as a leader in the struggle to end all forms of discrimination against
women."
ME
AGAINST MY BROTHER
By:
Scott Peterson
Publisher:
Routledge, 2000
As
a foreign correspondent, Scott Peterson witnessed
firsthand Somalia's descent into war and its battle
against US troops, the spiritual degeneration of
Sudan's Holy War, and one of the most horrific events
of the last half century: the genocide in Rwanda.
In Me Against My Brother, he brings these events
together for the first time to record a collapse
that has had an impact far beyond African borders.
In Somalia,
Peterson tells of harrowing experiences of clan conflict,
guns and starvation. He met with warlords, observed
death intimately and nearly lost his own life to
a Somali mob. From ground level, he documents how
the US-UN relief mission evolved into all out war
- one that has proven to be the most costly post-Cold
War debacle for America. In Sudan, he journeys where
few correspondents have ever been, on both sides
of that religious front line, to find that outside "relief" has
only prolonged war. In Rwanda, his first-person experience
of the genocide and well-documented analysis provide
rare insight into this human tragedy.
Filled
with the dust, sweat and powerful detail of real-life,
Me Against My Brother graphically illustrates how
preventive action and a better understanding of Africa
- especially by the US - could have averted much
suffering.
Mogadishu!:
Heroism And Tragedy
By:
Kent Delong, Steven Tuckey
Publisher:
Routledge, 2000
"Every
American should read this book in order to gain a
clear insight about military combat and war." From
the foreword by Ross Perot "Recommended for
readers who enjoy suspenseful accounts of close combat." Publishers
Weekly "Most Americans remember...the two troubling
televised images that follwed [the operation]....But
there is more about that day that is told in this
book and that should be known by Americans." The
Wall Street Journal.
A
sensationalized account of the US military's October
1993 mission to capture Mohammed Farrah Aidid and
his top lieutenants. Based largely on the testimony
of military personnel, the book recounts in detail
the action of October 3-4 with a focus on the bravery
and heroics of the American servicemen, particularly
the 18 men tragically killed.
Grade
4 up--Seven teenage refugees relate their traumatic
experiences fleeing Somalia during the country's
civil war. A lengthy introduction provides a historical
survey of the country from ancient times to the present.
Each succeeding chapter presents a first-person narrative
that describes some of the many hardships and dangers
the teen went through before reaching the United
States or Canada. The suffering is described in heartbreaking
detail; e.g., deprivation of food, water, and shelter,
as well as the many tragic deaths of relatives and
friends. Clear black-and-white and full-color photos,
including snapshots of five of the teenagers profiled,
accompany the text. The narrators also describe their
lives and challenges in their host countries. Although
emotionally involving, this book is seriously flawed
by the omission of important facts. There is no mention
of the political roles played by the United States,
the former Soviet Union, and their allies in the
bloody conflicts. Somalis as well as other African
peoples have been provided with huge arsenals by
the super powers in attempts to influence the countries'
ideologies. Dissidents have been encouraged to fight
bloody and catastrophic civil wars. In failing to
tell readers the whole truth, this book distorts
history and glosses over the terrible responsibility
the outside world bears for the horrors these teenagers
so eloquently describe.
Aman:
The Story of a Somali Girl
By:
Virginia Lee Barnes, Janice Boddy
Publisher:
Random House, Incorporated, 1995
An
extraordinary first-person account of a young woman's
coming of age in Somalia during the 1950s and 1960s.
Aman is an instantly recognizable story of a girl
who struggles against the obligations and strictures
of family and society. Aman gives a portrait of herself
as fiercely devoted to her family and culture yet
searching for a better life. By the time she is eight,
she has undergone a ritual clitoridectomy. At eleven
her innocent romance with a white boy leads to a
murder. At thirteen she is given away in an arranged
marriage to a stranger who attempts to deflower her
with a knife. She runs away to the city, where her
beauty and rebelliousness lead her to the rich, decadent
demimonde of white colonialists. Unflinchingly honest
in the telling of her story, Aman emerges as a woman
capable of both generosity and selfishness, love
and cruelty. Hers is an astonishing history, engagingly
- and necessarily - concerned with the role of women
in tribal societies, female circumcision, the vicissitudes
of colonialism, and the quest for female self-awareness.
Contribution
by:
INTERNATIONAL SERVICE CENTER
21 South River Street Harrisburg, PA 17101
Phone: (717) 236-1523 Fax: (717) 236-3821
Email: isc1976@aol.com http://hometown.aol.com/isc1976
This
handout was prepared to accompany a workshop by Almira C. Rzehak
presented December 8, 2000 at the PA Department of Education.
Ms. Rzehak is a refugee from Bosnia and Herzegovina where she
was a professor of philosophy and sociology at the
University
of Sarajevo. Since coming to the United States, Ms. Rzehak
has been a journalist, teacher, and cultural consultant.
She
currently lives in Hershey, PA.
Administration Building, 4900 Curry Road,
Pittsburgh, PA 15236
